Perovskite Solar Cells
Field
Photovoltaics, Energy
Record PCE
26.1% (single)
Tandem Record
33.9% (Si/perovskite)
Key Challenge
Long-term stability
Capstone Papers
1,850+ (250+ citations)
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) use lead halide perovskites (ABX3 structure) as light-absorbing materials. Since the first solid-state device in 2012, efficiencies have risen from 10% to over 26%, rivaling silicon. The combination of high performance, low-cost solution processing, and tunable bandgaps makes perovskites transformative for photovoltaics.
This research survey covers highly-cited papers on perovskite composition, stability, tandem architectures, and commercialization challenges.
26.1%
Single-Junction Record
$0.05/W
Target Module Cost
25+ years
Target Lifetime
Efficiency progress
Perovskite solar cell efficiency has increased faster than any other PV technology:
2009 — First perovskite sensitized solar cell (3.8% PCE)
2012 — All-solid-state device (10.9%), spiro-OMeTAD HTL
2015 — Certified 20%+ efficiency achieved
2019 — 25% barrier broken with compositional engineering
2023 — 26.1% certified single-junction record (EPFL)
2024 — 33.9% tandem with silicon (LONGi Green Energy)
Perovskite composition
The ABX3 perovskite structure allows extensive compositional tuning:
| Site |
Common Ions |
Effect on Properties |
| A-site cation |
MA+, FA+, Cs+, Rb+ |
Bandgap, thermal stability, phase stability |
| B-site metal |
Pb2+, Sn2+, Ge2+ |
Bandgap, toxicity, stability |
| X-site halide |
I-, Br-, Cl- |
Bandgap tuning (1.2-2.3 eV) |
State-of-the-art compositions:
- FAPbI3-based: FA0.9Cs0.1PbI3 with 2D passivation layers for stability
- Mixed halides: FA0.85MA0.15Pb(I0.85Br0.15)3 for tandem applications
- Lead-free: FASnI3 with antioxidants, approaching 15% efficiency
Stability challenges
Long-term stability remains the primary barrier to commercialization:
- Moisture sensitivity: Hygroscopic nature leads to hydration and decomposition. Solved with encapsulation and hydrophobic transport layers.
- Thermal instability: Phase transitions and ion migration at elevated temperatures. Compositional engineering (Cs, Rb doping) improves stability.
- Light-induced degradation: Ion migration causes hysteresis and efficiency loss. Defect passivation with 2D perovskite capping layers helps.
- Interface degradation: Reactions at perovskite/transport layer interfaces. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) provide stable contacts.
2024 milestone: Oxford PV demonstrated >25 year projected lifetime through accelerated aging tests with encapsulated tandems.
Tandem solar cells
Perovskite-silicon tandems can exceed the ~29% theoretical limit of silicon:
- 2-terminal (monolithic): Perovskite deposited directly on textured silicon. 33.9% record (LONGi, 2024).
- 4-terminal: Independent subcells connected externally. Easier fabrication but more complex systems.
- All-perovskite tandems: Wide-bandgap + narrow-bandgap perovskites. 29.5% record, avoids silicon constraints.
Major manufacturers (LONGi, Hanwha Q CELLS, Oxford PV) are investing heavily in tandem technology for next-generation commercial panels.
Commercialization
Several companies are approaching commercial production:
- Oxford PV: Building first tandem production line (100 MW) in Brandenburg, Germany
- Swift Solar: Flexible perovskite modules for aerospace and portable applications
- Saule Technologies: Roll-to-roll production of flexible modules
- Caelux: Commercial tandem modules targeting $0.10/W
Key remaining challenges: Scaling solution processing, lead containment, passing IEC 61215 certification for 25-year warranties.
Key papers
See also